TLV-TWA: chromium metal 0.5 mg/m3
(ACGIH and MSHA), 1 mg/m3 (OSHA);
Cr(II) and Cr(III) compounds 0.5 mg/m3
(ACGIH); Cr(VI) compounds, water soluble
and certain water insoluble, 0.05 mg/m3
(ACGIH).
物理描述:
Chromium is a very hard gray solid with a metallic luster. (NTP, 1992)
The silver soldered stainless steel wire corroded more than the cobalt-chromium type, & released more nickel & chromium than did the cobalt-chromium wires.
汽化热:
81.7 kcal/mol (at the boiling point)
表面张力:
1590 + or - 50 mN/m in vacuum at 1950 °C (Sessile drop method); 1700 + or - 50 mN/m in air at melting point (Dynam drop wt method); 1520 mN/m in air or Helium at 1800 °C (Sessile drop method)
The metabolism of Cr (VI) involves reduction by small molecules and enzyme systems to generate Cr (III) and reactive intermediates. During this process, free radicals can be generated, which is thought to induce damage of cellular components and cause toxicity of chromium. The metabolites bind to cellular constituents.
Chromium is absorbed from oral, inhalation, or dermal exposure and distributes to nearly all tissues, with the highest concentrations found in kidney and liver. Bone is also a major storage site and may contribute to long-term retention. Hexavalent chromium's similarity to sulfate and chromate allows it to be transported into cells via sulfate transport mechanisms. Inside the cell, hexavalent chromium is reduced first to pentavalent chromium, then to trivalent chromium by different pathways including ascorbate, glutathione, and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide. Chromium is almost entirely excreted in the urine. (A12, L16)
IDENTIFICATION AND USE: Chromium elemental (Cr) is a steel-gray, lustrous metal. It is used in maufacturing of chrome-steel or chrome-nickel-steel alloys (stainless steel), nonferrous alloys, heat resistant bricks for refractory furnaces. This helps greatly increase strength, hardness and resistance of metals to abrasion, corrosion and oxidation. It is also used for chrome plating of other metals; leather tanning; as pigment and mordant and as a wood preservative. In medicine and laboratory research (51)Cr is used as a diagnostic aid. HUMAN EXPOSURE AND TOXICITY: Human exposure to Cr is increasing due to its use in Metal-on-metal (MOM) total hip arthroplasties. Metal-on-metal arthroplasty may lead to elevated blood Cr and cobalt (Co) levels. Cases of hypersensitivity to Cr and Co have been reported in such patients. Also both circulating-free-DNA and 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine showed a tendency to increase in male patients. However, CoCr hip implants appear to be nongenotoxic. In electric welders exposed to Cr, a significant correlation was found between the frequency of sister chromatid exchanges and individual DNA strand breakage versus the concentration of Cr in the urine. ANIMAL STUDIES: Rats (25 total) were given 6 weekly iv injections of 0.18 mL of a 0.05% suspension of chromium powder; round cell sarcomas were found in 4 rats; 1 rat had hemangioma; 2 rats had papillary adenomas of the lung, and one rat showed extensive squamous cell carcinomatous changes. Metallic Cr was assayed for the ability to induce cell transformation (anchorage-independent growth) in Syrian hamster fibroblasts. Although chromium particles were phagocytized by cells, no significant increase in the number of cell foci growing in soft agar was observed. In male rats exposed to Cr fumes generated from powders of Cr metal by plasma flame sprayer developed significant increases in the frequencies of sister chromatid exchange and of chromosomal aberrations observed in peripheral blood lymphocytes, whereas chromosomal aberration frequencies in bone-marrow cells were unchanged. ECOTOXICITY STUDIES: Cr was toxic to naiad mollusks at 12.4 ppm. The greatest Cr toxicity risk to plants is posed in acidic sandy soil with low organic content.
Hexavalent chromium's carcinogenic effects are caused by its metabolites, pentavalent and trivalent chromium. The DNA damage may be caused by hydroxyl radicals produced during reoxidation of pentavalent chromium by hydrogen peroxide molecules present in the cell. Trivalent chromium may also form complexes with peptides, proteins, and DNA, resulting in DNA-protein crosslinks, DNA strand breaks, DNA-DNA interstrand crosslinks, chromium-DNA adducts, chromosomal aberrations and alterations in cellular signaling pathways. It has been shown to induce carcinogenesis by overstimulating cellular regulatory pathways and increasing peroxide levels by activating certain mitogen-activated protein kinases. It can also cause transcriptional repression by cross-linking histone deacetylase 1-DNA methyltransferase 1 complexes to CYP1A1 promoter chromatin, inhibiting histone modification. Chromium may increase its own toxicity by modifying metal regulatory transcription factor 1, causing the inhibition of zinc-induced metallothionein transcription. (A12, L16, A34, A35, A36)
Evaluation: There is inadequate evidence in humans for the carcinogenicity of metallic chromium and of chromium(III) compounds. There is inadequate evidence in experimental animals for the carcinogenicity of metallic chromium, barium chromate and chromium(III) compounds. Overall evaluation: Metallic chromium and chromium(III) compounds are not classifiable as to their carcinogenicity to humans (Group 3). /Metallic chromium and chromium(III) compounds/
Chromium compounds are both absorbed by the lung and the gastrointestinal tract. Oral absorption of chromium compounds in humans can range between 0.5% and 10%, with the hexavalent (VI) chromium more easily absorbed than the trivalent (III) form. Absorption of chromium from the intestinal tract is low, ranging from less than 0.4% to 2.5% of the amount consumed. Vitamin C and the vitamin B niacin is reported to enhance chromium absorption. Most hexavalent Cr (VI) undergoes partial intragastric reduction to Cr (III) upon absorption, which is an action mainly mediated by sulfhydryl groups of amino acids. Cr (VI) readily penetrates cell membranes and chromium can be found in both erythrocytes and plasma after gastrointestinal absorption of Cr (IV). In comparison, the presence of chromium is limited to the plasma as Cr (III) displays poor cell membrane penetration. Once transported through the cell membrane, Cr (VI) is rapidly reduced to Cr (III), which subsequently binds to macromolecules or conjugate with proteins. Cr (III) may be bound to transferrin or other plasma proteins, or as complexes, such as glucose tolerance factor (GTF).
Absorbed chromium is excreted mainly in the urine, accounting for 80% of total excretion of chromium; small amounts are lost in hair, perspiration and bile. Chromium is excreted primarily in the urine by glomerular filtration or bound to a low molecular-weight organic transporter.
Absorbed chromium is distributed to all tissues of the body and its distribution in the body depends on the species, age, and chemical form. Circulating Cr (III) following oral or parenteral administration of different compounds can be taken up by tissues and accumulates in the liver, kidney, spleen, soft tissue, and bone.
Excretion of chromium is via the kidneys ranges from 3 to 50 μg/day. The 24-hour urinary excretion rates for normal human subjects are reported to be 0.22 μg/day.
The objective of the Part II analysis was to evaluate animal and in vitro toxicology studies of CoCr particles with respect to their physicochemistry and dose relevance to metal-on-metal (MoM) implant patients as derived from Part I. In the various toxicology studies, physicochemical characteristics were infrequently considered and administered doses were orders of magnitude higher than what occurs in patients. Co was consistently shown to rapidly release from CoCr particles for distribution and elimination from the body. CoCr micron sized particles appear more biopersistent in vivo resulting in inflammatory responses that are not seen with similar mass concentrations of nanoparticles. We conclude, that in an attempt to obtain data for a complete risk assessment, future studies need to focus on physicochemical characteristics of nano and micron sized particles and on doses and dose metrics relevant to those generated in patients or in properly conducted hip simulator studies. /CoCr particles/
1.周国泰,化学危险品安全技术全书,化学工业出版社,1997 2.国家环保局有毒化学品管理办公室、北京化工研究院合编,化学品毒性法规环境数据手册,中国环境科学出版社.1992 3.Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety,CHEMINFO Database.1998 4.Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety, RTECS Database, 1989